1. Introduction
The scholarly investigation of reading comprehension has its origins in the early 20th century, when psychologists and educators endeavoured to elucidate the cognitive mechanisms underpinning textual interpretation
| [29] | Redecker C, Leis M, Leendertse M, Punie Y, Gijsbers G, Kirschner P, Stoyanov S, Hoogveld B. The Future of Learning: Preparing for Change. EUR 24960 EN. Luxembourg (Luxembourg): Publications Office of the European Union; 2011. JRC66836. |
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. While interest in this domain has grown considerably in recent years, the fundamental process of comprehension has remained largely unchanged. Instead, it is the theoretical conceptualization of how comprehension is attained that has undergone significant transformation
| [12] | Goldstone, B. P. (2002b). WhAz up with our books? Changing picture book codes and teaching implications. The Reading Teacher, 55(4). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ638860 |
[12]
. During the 1960s and 1970s, reading specialists posited that comprehension was primarily a function of textual decoding
| [6] | Dresang, E. T., & McClelland, K. A. (1999b). Radical Change: Digital Age Literature and learning. Theory Into Practice, 38(3), 160-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/0040584990954384 |
| [7] | Dubois, J. (1979). Diccionario de la Lingüística. Alianza. |
| [8] | Facer, K. (2011). Learning futures: Education, Technology and Social Change. Taylor & Francis US. |
[6-8]
, predicated on the assumption that understanding occurred automatically. However, this perspective was ultimately found to be inadequate, as it was based on studies that predominantly utilized literal comprehension questions, failing to account for inferential reasoning, critical reading, or textual analysis skills
| [12] | Goldstone, B. P. (2002b). WhAz up with our books? Changing picture book codes and teaching implications. The Reading Teacher, 55(4). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ638860 |
[12]
.
In response to these limitations, pedagogical approaches to reading comprehension have been revised to incorporate a broader range of analytical questions informed by Barrett’s Taxonomy. This framework categorizes comprehension into multiple hierarchical levels, including literal understanding, information reorganization, inferential comprehension, critical analysis, and literary appreciation.
Contemporary research on reading comprehension is inherently multidisciplinary, following two principal lines of inquiry: the structural and thematic analysis of texts and the investigation of the dynamic interaction between author and reader. Quintero and Hernández define reading comprehension as “
un proceso interactivo entre escritor y lector a través del cual el lector interpreta y construye un significado”
[an interactive process between writer and reader, through which the reader interprets and constructs meaning]. When conceptualized as a simultaneous process of knowledge extraction and construction through engagement with written language, four fundamental elements emerge, the reader as the interpretative agent, the text as the informational medium, the activity contextualizing the reading process, and the broader sociocultural framework encompassing these components
| [19] | Leu, D. J., & Kinzer, C. K. (2000). The Convergence of Literacy Instruction with Networked Technologies for Information and Communication. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(1), 108-127. http://www.jstor.org/stable/748290 |
[19]
. However, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have expanded this paradigm. Whereas traditional texts rely on a combination of print and two-dimensional graphics, digital texts incorporate a variety of symbolic and multimedia formats
| [19] | Leu, D. J., & Kinzer, C. K. (2000). The Convergence of Literacy Instruction with Networked Technologies for Information and Communication. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(1), 108-127. http://www.jstor.org/stable/748290 |
[19]
.
Coiro
| [3] | Brunner, C. B. & Tally, W. (1999). The New Media Literacy Handbook: An Educator´s Guide to Bridging New Media into the Classroom. Anchor Books. |
[3]
asserts that the processes underlying comprehension have been transformed in the digital age, as ICT has given rise to multimodal literacy models in which the objectives of reading comprehension are not explicitly defined. Unlike traditional texts, which are limited to printed media and static visual elements, electronic texts integrate a diverse range of symbols and multimedia components, including animated graphics, icons, caricatures, photographs, audio files, advertisements, video clips, and virtual reality environments. Furthermore, these digital formats introduce novel methods of information presentation through unconventional typographic styles and colour schemes
| [2] | Ananiadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st Century Skills and Competences for new Millennium Learners in OECD Countries. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 41. OECD Publishing (NJ1). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED529649 |
[2]
. The RAND Reading Study Group underscores the complexities of digital literacy:
We inhabit an era marked by an exponential expansion of alternative texts […] Digital texts incorporating hyperlinks and hypermedia introduce definitional complexities to the concept of reading comprehension, necessitating cognitive competencies that transcend those required for conventional, linear print literacy
| [27] | Quintero & Hdez. (2001). Comprensión y Composición Escrita. Estrategias de Aprendizaje. Editorial Síntesis. |
[27]
(xiv-14).
Indeed, the integration of multimedia elements compels readers to critically assess how they access, process, and respond to information. Traditional literacy, historically rooted in print-based culture, has now evolved into an audio-visual-centric paradigm
| [19] | Leu, D. J., & Kinzer, C. K. (2000). The Convergence of Literacy Instruction with Networked Technologies for Information and Communication. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(1), 108-127. http://www.jstor.org/stable/748290 |
[19]
. This shift has precipitated notable changes in language usage and cognitive reasoning capacities. Texts are no longer static, predetermined entities; rather, they have become fluid constructs, actively shaped by readers as they navigate through hyperlinked networks, assuming a degree of authorship through interpretative autonomy
| [19] | Leu, D. J., & Kinzer, C. K. (2000). The Convergence of Literacy Instruction with Networked Technologies for Information and Communication. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(1), 108-127. http://www.jstor.org/stable/748290 |
[19]
.
As previously discussed, electronic texts incorporate diverse symbolic and multimedia elements, encouraging readers to participate in the co-construction of textual meaning by selecting their own navigational paths and formulating individualized interpretations. Goldstone observes that postmodern authors function less as authoritative narrators and more as facilitators of meaning-making, prompting readers to construct narratives by bridging gaps in textual structures and synthesizing disparate narrative threads
| [11] | Gijsbers, G. & Van Schoonhoven, B. (2012). The Future of Leaning: a Foresight Study on New ways to Learn new Skills for Future Jobs. European Foresight Platform. |
[11]
. This evolution underscores a paradigm shift in reading, whereby engagement with texts has ceased to be a passive process of internalization and has instead become an interactive, multidirectional experience. Consequently, digital reading has emerged as a form of knowledge construction that integrates multiple interconnected sources through hyperlinks
| [37] | Wagner, T., & Kegan, R. (2006). Change leadership: A Practical Guide to Transforming Our Schools. Jossey-Bass. |
[37]
.
The transition from printed text to screen-based reading necessitates the development of new cognitive competencies. Readers must acquire the ability to identify relevant information, assess the credibility of sources, and evaluate the pertinence of the content they encounter
| [18] | Labbo, L. D. (1996). A Semiotic Analysis of Young Children’s Symbol Making in a Classroom Computer Center. Reading Research Quarterly, 31(4), 356-385. http://www.jstor.org/stable/748182 |
[18]
. The nature of literacy has evolved rapidly in tandem with technological advancements
; digital texts introduce novel challenges that may influence readers’ capacity to comprehend and critically engage with content. Selfe encapsulates the transformative effects of the Internet on literacy as follows:
Today, the definition of literacy has expanded from traditional notions of reading and writing to include the ability to learn, comprehend, and interact with technology in a meaningful way
.
Undoubtedly, the Internet presents both novel reading objectives and a diversity of formats that may challenge individuals accustomed to extracting meaning from conventional print-based texts. Indeed, proficiency in acquiring knowledge from digital sources is increasingly integral to future literacy development
. This shift raises fundamental pedagogical questions: If the comprehension process is distinct in digital environments, what new cognitive strategies must students develop? What implications do these changes have for teaching, assessment, and professional development in education?
It is evident that contemporary literacy necessitates a redefined instructional methodology. Historically, literacy and education have been shaped by dominant sociocultural forces. In previous eras, literacy instruction was influenced by economic structures, systemic oppression and resistance, and the dissemination of ideological doctrines. In specific cultural contexts, literacy served as a medium for sharing collective experiences among marginalized groups, as exemplified by 11th-century Japanese courtesans or the Russian Samizdat movement under Tsarist rule
. In today’s information-rich landscape, the rapid acquisition and processing of information have become critical determinants of success across technological fields. Consequently, educational methodologies must integrate strategies for identifying, evaluating, utilizing, and effectively communicating information. Educators must consider the most efficient means of facilitating students’ knowledge acquisition through the use of diverse technological tools
. Additionally, the Internet has broadened the sociocultural framework within which literacy is developed by providing collaborative platforms for sharing and responding to information across continents, cultures, and languages. Furthermore, digital texts afford opportunities for interaction through discussion forums and synchronous communication platforms, fostering engagement with multiple perspectives
| [17] | Kinzer, C. K., & Leu, D. J. (1997). The Challenge of Change: Exploring literacy and learning in electronic environments. Language arts, 74(2). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ547087 |
[17]
.
However, the nature of the information available on the Internet necessitates a reconsideration of reading comprehension processes, compelling readers to adopt a critical approach to textual analysis to mitigate susceptibility to misinformation, manipulation, and cognitive bias. It is imperative for all readers to develop the ability to differentiate between fact and opinion, as well as between truth and falsehood. As Tapscott underscores: “Never before has it been more necessary that children learn to read, write, and think critically. It’s not just point and click. It’s point, read, think, click”
| [31] | Sternberg, R. J., & Subotnik, R. F. (2006). Optimizing student success in school with the other three Rs: Reasoning, Resilience, and Responsibility. Information Age Pub Incorporated. |
[31]
.
It is crucial to foster students’ ability to critically analyse information in an increasingly digitalized world. Consequently, literacy assessment must evolve to encompass digital competencies, reflecting the changing nature of information consumption. However, as of now, no country has formally assessed reading comprehension through digital technologies beyond printed text
. This gap highlights the need for a paradigm shift in education, moving away from a centralized instructional model toward one that prioritizes collaborative learning at all levels.
Given the growing importance of information literacy, students must be equipped with the skills necessary to navigate and critically engage with digital content. Likewise, reading and writing assessments must integrate digital literacy competencies to ensure students are adequately prepared for contemporary challenges. It is a fact that organizations increasingly seek individuals with advanced problem-solving skills, making it imperative for educational institutions to emphasize critical thinking, analytical reasoning, and problem-solving within their curricula.
Yet, the fundamental question remains: To what extent are these objectives being effectively achieved? What is the current state of literacy education in different countries, and how well does it prepare students for the demands of the digital age?
3. Intervention Proposal
3.1. Conceptual Framework
This study is grounded in constructivist and socio-cultural theories of learning, emphasizing students’ active engagement in meaning-making processes and the collaborative construction of knowledge
| [3] | Brunner, C. B. & Tally, W. (1999). The New Media Literacy Handbook: An Educator´s Guide to Bridging New Media into the Classroom. Anchor Books. |
[3]
. The project draws on the principles of 21st-century education as outlined by Trilling and Fadel
| [32] | Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. McGraw-Hill Companies. |
[32]
which advocate for the development of critical thinking, digital competence, creativity, and collaboration as key learning outcomes. It is also informed by the RAND Reading Study Group
| [27] | Quintero & Hdez. (2001). Comprensión y Composición Escrita. Estrategias de Aprendizaje. Editorial Síntesis. |
[27]
, which underscores the complex cognitive demands of digital reading comprehension in multimodal environments. These theoretical underpinnings are aligned with the Spanish national curriculum (LOMLOE, 2020) and the Basque Country’s educational model, Heziberri 2020, both of which promote the integration of digital literacy, cooperative learning, and the ability to evaluate and produce reliable information in a digital context.
3.2. Objectives of the Study
3.2.1. General Objective
To design and implement a didactic intervention for 4th-year Spanish Secondary Education (ESO) students that develops critical digital literacy and fosters 21st-century competencies—specifically critical thinking, collaboration, and problem-solving—through an inquiry-based approach to the analysis and production of digital content.
3.2.2. Specific Objectives
1) To develop students’ capacity to critically evaluate the credibility and reliability of digital texts, including social media posts and online news, in accordance with LOMLOE Specific Competency 4 and Evaluation Criterion 4.2.
2) To implement cooperative learning strategies that promote peer interaction, negotiation of meaning, and shared responsibility for group outcomes, thereby reinforcing the principles of Heziberri 2020 Block 1 (collaborative information processing and communication).
3) To assess students’ ability to use digital tools (Genial.ly, Padlet, Mentimeter, Canvas) to search for, curate, and present information effectively and ethically, including appropriate citation and critical engagement with content.
4) To measure students’ application of problem-solving and critical-thinking skills in structured scenarios requiring the identification and analysis of fake news, following the competencies outlined by P21
and the OECD
| [2] | Ananiadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st Century Skills and Competences for new Millennium Learners in OECD Countries. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 41. OECD Publishing (NJ1). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED529649 |
[2]
.
To evaluate the originality, coherence, and credibility of student-produced content, including written articles and oral presentations, using analytic rubrics aligned with curriculum standards and 21st-century learning indicators.
3.3. Context
Vizcaya School is a semi-private educational institution located in the municipality of Zamudio, in the province of Bizkaia, the Basque Country (Spain). Established as a teaching cooperative, it operates under the principles and provisions of Law 4/1993, of June 24, on Cooperatives of the Basque Country, approved by the Basque Parliament, as well as other relevant legal regulations and its own statutes. The school offers all educational levels, from early childhood and primary education to secondary education and the Spanish Baccalaureate. It is recognized as a leading institution in innovative educational projects, as evidenced by its recent inclusion in Forbes magazine’s list of the 100 best schools in Spain. The socioeconomic level of the families is predominantly middle-to-upper class, and, in general, parents are highly engaged in their children’s education, maintaining close communication with the school and actively participating in school-led activities.
3.4. Target Group
The intervention will be implemented in two of the four sections of 4th-year ESO (Secondary Education) at the institution. Each group consists of 29 students, aged 15 to 16, including both male and female students. Among them, 16 students require specific educational support due to conditions such as language disorders, dyslexia, high intellectual abilities, or ADHD. However, no modifications to the proposed activities were considered necessary. Each group is structured into heterogeneous teams, ensuring diversity in abilities and gender representation. The teacher responsible for implementing the proposal is Raquel Cermeño, Head of the Spanish Language and Literature Department.
3.5. Legal Framework
The enactment of the Organic Law 3/2020, of December 29, which amends the Organic Law 2/2006, of May 3, on Education (LOMLOE, 2020), continues the regulatory framework that began with the Organic Law 5/1980, of June 19, on the Statute of Educational Centres (LOECE, 1980), following the 1978 Spanish Constitution. Consequently, this project aligns with the Organic Law 3/2020, of December 29 (LOMLOE), which modifies the Organic Law 2/2006, of May 3 (LOE), as well as the Royal Decree 243/2022, of April 5, which establishes the structure and minimum curricula for the Spanish Secondary Education. Additionally, it adheres to Decree 127/2016, of September 6, which sets out the Basque Country’s Secondary Education curriculum and its implementation within the Autonomous Community, along with Heziberri
Within the framework of LOMLOE, this project focuses on the following key competencies:
Table 1. LOMLOE Specific Competencies.
Specific Competency 2 To comprehend and interpret oral and multimodal texts, with particular emphasis on academic and media texts, grasping their general meaning and most relevant information, identifying the speaker’s perspective and intent, and assessing their reliability, form, and content. This competency aims to facilitate knowledge construction, opinion formation, and the expansion of opportunities for enjoyment and leisure | Evaluation Criterion 2.2. To assess the form and content of complex oral and multimodal texts by evaluating their quality, reliability, and the suitability of the communication channel used, as well as the effectiveness of the communicative procedures employed. | |
Specific Competency 4 To comprehend, interpret, and critically evaluate written texts for various reading purposes, with particular attention to academic and media texts. This includes recognizing the overall meaning, distinguishing between main and secondary ideas, integrating explicit information, making necessary inferences, identifying the author’s intent, reflecting on both content and form, and assessing the text’s quality and reliability. These skills enable individuals to meet diverse communicative needs and interests while constructing knowledge. | | Evaluation Criterion 4.2. To assess the form and content of complex texts by evaluating their quality, the reliability and appropriateness of the communication channel used, and the effectiveness of the communicative procedures employed. |
Specific Competency 6 To select and compare information from various sources, assessing its reliability and relevance based on reading objectives while avoiding the risks of manipulation and misinformation. This competency involves integrating and transforming information into knowledge and communicating it with a critical and personal perspective, while maintaining respect for intellectual property—particularly in the context of research projects related to curricular topics or literary works. | Evaluation Criteria: | 6.1. To independently conduct research projects in various formats on curricular topics of cultural interest. This includes locating, selecting, and comparing information from different sources; evaluating its reliability and relevance based on reading objectives; organizing and integrating it into original frameworks; and creatively reworking and communicating it while adopting a critical perspective and respecting intellectual property. 6.2. To assess the truthfulness of news and information, with particular attention to social media and other digital environments, by applying analysis, comparison, and verification methods, using appropriate tools, and maintaining a critical stance toward potential biases in the information. |
As well as the following Core Knowledge Areas:
Table 2. Core Knowledge Areas.
B. Communication: |
3. Processes: |
Information Literacy Autonomous search and selection of information based on criteria of reliability, quality, and relevance; analysis, evaluation, reorganization, and synthesis of information into original frameworks and its transformation into knowledge; communication and dissemination of reworked information in a creative manner while respecting intellectual property. Fake news and fact-checking. Clickbait. |
Within Heziberri 2020, we will focus on the contents of Block 1:
Table 3. Contents of Block 1 Heziberri and Achievement Indicators.
Contents of Block 1: Common Contents Across All Subjects and Courses This block of contents includes procedures and attitudes aimed at: Identification, acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information. Evaluation of the suitability of information sources and the information itself. (p. 118) |
1.1.3.2. Evaluation Criteria and Achievement Indicators |
Autonomous, Effective, and Critical Use of Information and Communication Technologies for Searching, Selecting, Communicating, and Disseminating Information. Independently utilizes written, digital, and audio-visual sources to search for information. |
3.6. Proposal
Our proposal is based on engaging students in a project designed to develop their critical thinking skills. The project will focus on misinformation in the era of post-truth. Through various challenges, we will encourage students to cultivate their critical thinking skills, equipping them with the necessary strategies to detect and combat misinformation.
3.6.1. Didactic Objectives
1) To promote autonomous information search and selection among students,
2) To encourage cooperative learning,
3) To help students recognize the existence of fake news and the potential harm it can cause,
4) To provide students with tools to identify fake news,
5) To foster their critical thinking skills.
3.6.2. Methodology
The proposal will be implemented using a cooperative learning approach, structured around base teams, which will be heterogeneous, permanent groups of four students. Since cooperative learning has been used at this school since primary education, organizing these groups is straightforward. However, if we were to establish the base teams from scratch, we would follow a three-column strategy:
1) First column (high-achieving students): One-fourth of the students who demonstrate leadership, initiative, and motivation.
2) Second column (low-achieving students): One-fourth of the students who struggle academically or show low motivation.
3) Third column (remaining students): The rest of the class.
To create balanced base teams, each group would consist of one student from the first column, one from the second, and two from the third, ensuring diversity and equilibrium.
Our proposal is grounded on Project-Based Learning (PBL), as this methodology enables students to acquire 21st-century knowledge and competencies through the development of projects that address real-world problems. By employing PBL, we aim to actively engage students in higher-order cognitive processes, as the project is designed to deliver meaningful content while requiring the use of critical thinking, problem-solving, collaboration, and diverse communication skills.
3.6.3. Timeline
The Spanish Language and Literature course consists of three weekly sessions:
1) One 50-minute session on Mondays,
2) Two 40-minute sessions on Tuesdays and Thursdays.
The proposed intervention was implemented in March 2024, at the beginning of the third term. This period was particularly suitable, as students had had recently been exposed to the different journalistic genres, making them familiar with various subgenres and their characteristics. The intervention was conducted over a total of six sessions.
3.6.4. Sessions
Introduction: Link to Canvas for Elevator pitch (1.54 minutes)
We all enjoy sharing news and stories on our social media. We may do so for different reasons—because it is an interesting story, a striking piece of news about a popular singer or football player, or simply something we find amusing. But… do you verify whether something is true before sharing it?
Not everything we read or see on the internet is true, and if we share false information, we may lead others to believe something that is actually fake, thereby contributing to the spread of misinformation. Here are some examples of Fake News.
And you? Are you part of the disinformation mechanism? Or do you dare to take on this challenge?
First Session: Round 01 of Genial.ly.
The activity will be carried out cooperatively in the already established groups following these instructions:
First, students will have 30 minutes to search for answers to the guiding questions provided by the teacher,
1) What are Fake News?
2) Why are they spread?
3) Types of false information.
4) The 8 Ps of false information.
5) Fake News and Democracy.
6) How can we detect Fake News?
Once the search is complete, they must share their answers on Padlet. This will allow them to expand, verify, or debunk the information given by their classmates (20 minutes). The teacher will manage the time by displaying a timer on the board and they will be provided some webpages to help them in their quest.
After that, the students will share what they have learnt in a PADLET (15 minutes).
Second session: Round 02 of Genial.ly.
To review what was covered in the previous session, the students will participate in a Mentimeter activity, where they will create a Word Art by contributing key terms related to Fake News (5 minutes). The teacher will manage the time by displaying a timer on the board.
After that, a “Round-Robin Writing” will take place for 15 minutes, whose objective is to contribute in writing, taking turns among the members of each work team and the following steps:
1) A sheet of paper will be passed around, and each team member will take turns writing a contribution about Fake News. The team leader will ensure that turns are respected.
2) The first team member to write will pass the sheet to the next teammate, following a clockwise direction, until time runs out.
3) Before writing, team members will discuss their contributions with their peers to ensure accuracy and relevance.
The entire team is responsible for the content written on the “Rotating Sheet.”
Finally, the session will end with a 20-minute discussion. In the last 15 minutes, each team will read the contributions made by all members of their group and the final 5 minutes of the class will be dedicated to questions, doubts, or a discussion.
Third session: Round 03 of Genial.ly.
We will watch Noah Tavlin’s TedTalk on the spread of Fake News and after carrying out a webquest we will proceed to debate on the issue at hand.
After that, there will be a webquest and a debate.
Fourth session: Round 04 of Genial.ly.
A challenge will be presented to the students. Within their cooperative work teams, they will need to discern which of the presented news stories are real and which are false. They will have 20 minutes and may use any tools available to them. The teacher will manage the time by displaying a timer on the board.
Here are the news stories to be evaluated:
After those 20 minutes, students will vote on which news stories they believe to be true using MentiMeter (20 minutes). They will then share their opinions about the various news stories and discuss the methods they used to determine which ones were true and which were false.
In the last 10 minutes of the session, we will conduct an individual test to assess what has been learned up to this point.
Fifth session: Round 05 of Genial.ly.
Let’s move into action. Students will have 40 minutes to write a news article (true or false) that they will present to their classmates. In order to write the article, they can use all the resources we’ve worked with so far. Additionally, they will need to prepare a presentation of their article to share in the next session.
The students will need to submit their written news article to the teacher, who will correct it using a rubric.
Sixth session: Round 05 of Genial.ly.
In this session, the students will present their news articles to their classmates, who will have to guess whether the news is true or false (5 minutes per presentation).
3.6.5. Assessment
Assessment will be based on formative or process-based assessment, which will be carried out through the completion of the various challenges and the teacher's observation, as well as summative, integrative, or outcome-based evaluation, which will be carried out in two ways:
The teacher will use a rubric to correct the students’ written work, and peer evaluation will take place for the presentation and creativity of the final product, also using rubrics provided by the teacher.
Results
A total of 58 students participated in the intervention. The group was nearly gender-balanced (30 female, 28 male), with 16 students requiring specific educational support due to dyslexia, ADHD, high intellectual capacity, or language disorders. All students completed the project activities.
Rubric-Based Results
Evaluation of student performance based on rubric-based scoring revealed consistently high outcomes across all five categories. The highest average score was obtained in “Critical Analysis” (mean = 3.7/4), while the lowest was in “Use of Digital Tools and Media Elements” (mean = 3.1/4), suggesting that while analytical engagement with content was strong, the integration of digital media could be further developed.
Table 4. Presents the average scores across the evaluated rubric dimensions. Presents the average scores across the evaluated rubric dimensions. Presents the average scores across the evaluated rubric dimensions.
Summary of Assessment Results | |
Written Article | 17.4/20 |
Oral Presentation | 16.8/20 |
Knowledge Test (average score) | 8.2/10 |
Students Scoring ≥ 70% | 82% |
Peer-Teacher Correlation (r) | 0.81 |
Figure 1. Average Rubric Scores by Category (Bar chart showing mean scores out of 4 for each rubric criterion: Accuracy, Clarity, Digital Tool Use, Creativity, and Critical Analysis). Average Rubric Scores by Category (Bar chart showing mean scores out of 4 for each rubric criterion: Accuracy, Clarity, Digital Tool Use, Creativity, and Critical Analysis).
These findings support the overall effectiveness of the intervention in fostering critical literacy skills and 21st-century competencies. The high degree of alignment between peer and teacher evaluations also reinforces the reliability of the assessment process.
3.6.6. Assessment of the Proposal
Personal assessment:
Report by Raquel Cermeño (the teacher):
From the very beginning, all students have shown great interest in the activities, and their level of motivation has remained high throughout all sessions. The combination of different types of activities, such as reading texts, watching videos, or collaborating on a Padlet, helps maintain attention easily, ensuring continuous engagement with a high level of energy. Additionally, since these are collaborative activities always aimed at a specific goal—such as participating in a debate or delivering a group oral presentation—they foster a sense of responsibility and duty among students. Moreover, as the project is cooperative in nature, students feel supported by their peers and work in a safe environment that enhances learning.
Finally, the evaluation results of the completed tasks indicate that all participants have achieved a solid understanding of the topics covered, successfully applying essential skills such as critical thinking when analysing a news article.
Regarding peer assessment of the final product, students have participated actively and applied the provided rubric with enthusiasm and sound judgment.
Ultimately, all conclusions suggest that this project could be implemented in the subject's curriculum in future courses. This would effectively address the current and real need to educate students on how to properly identify so-called fake news. We cannot forget that surviving in the 21st century requires the acquisition of skills such as collaboration and leadership, effective oral and written communication, and the ability to critically analyse information—all of which are developed through this collaborative project.
We can also include some images of the students’ completed work, as seen on
Figures 3 and 4.
Figure 3. Contributions to the first Padlet.
Figure 4. Answers to the 4th challenge.
3.7. Discussion
The findings of this study indicate that a structured, digitally mediated intervention can significantly enhance secondary students’ ability to identify, evaluate, and respond to misinformation. High average scores in critical analysis and written production demonstrate that students not only understood the conceptual framework of fake news but also successfully applied detection strategies through active engagement with real-world materials. These outcomes align with existing literature on 21st-century skills development, particularly those proposed by Trilling and Fadel
| [32] | Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. McGraw-Hill Companies. |
[32]
, the OECD
| [2] | Ananiadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st Century Skills and Competences for new Millennium Learners in OECD Countries. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 41. OECD Publishing (NJ1). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED529649 |
[2]
, and the RAND Reading Study Group
| [27] | Quintero & Hdez. (2001). Comprensión y Composición Escrita. Estrategias de Aprendizaje. Editorial Síntesis. |
[27]
.
The results also suggest that the integration of cooperative learning and digital tools fosters student motivation and accountability, particularly among students with special educational needs. Observational data support the conclusion that collaborative structures (base teams, peer assessment, and shared digital platforms) encourage participation across ability levels.
However, the slightly lower score in the “Use of Digital Tools and Media Elements” category highlights a need for more explicit instruction in digital media creation and design. While students showed strong analytical thinking, some encountered challenges in producing visually coherent or persuasive multimodal content—an area for future pedagogical focus.
Moreover, although peer and teacher assessments were strongly aligned (r = 0.81), future studies could incorporate longitudinal follow-ups to determine the retention of skills and their transferability across subjects or contexts.
3.8. Significance of the Study and Implementation
This study addresses a critical gap in contemporary education: the need to equip students with the cognitive and digital literacy skills required to navigate a post-truth society. By integrating the intervention within the existing Spanish Language and Literature curriculum—and aligning it with national (LOMLOE) and regional
educational standards—the proposal demonstrates how critical digital literacy can be seamlessly embedded into existing instruction without disrupting curricular balance.
The didactic design can be readily adapted by educators across Spain and beyond, particularly in multilingual or digitally active environments. Its flexible structure, grounded in Project-Based Learning and supported by accessible digital tools, allows for replication and scalability in similar educational contexts. Importantly, the approach supports inclusive learning: students with diverse needs participated meaningfully, contributing to group tasks and individual outputs alike.
In light of the growing threat of disinformation and algorithmic bias, this study provides a model for empowering adolescents to become informed, ethical, and reflective participants in digital discourse. The positive results suggest that such interventions should be considered for broader implementation and policy inclusion at the institutional or ministerial level.
3.9. Conclusions
As we stated at the beginning of this work, the nature of the information available on the Internet requires us to adopt a critical stance toward texts due to the inherent risk of being deceived or biased. For this reason, it is essential to train our students to become critical consumers of information. Likewise, we believe that the educational approach should be based on collaborative work at all levels, as organizations highly value individuals with advanced problem-solving skills. Consequently, it is necessary for our students to develop competencies in critical thinking, analysis, and problem-solving.
This proposal focuses on fostering cooperative work, critical thinking, and problem-solving among students through the use of new technologies, aiming to develop 21st-century skills. This approach seeks to demonstrate that new opportunities and methods exist within the educational landscape of our country.
The results of this study confirm that the development of 21st-century skills—particularly critical thinking, collaboration, and digital literacy—can be effectively achieved through a structured, digitally supported intervention within the framework of secondary education. The successful implementation of this didactic proposal aligns with the theoretical positions of Coiro
| [3] | Brunner, C. B. & Tally, W. (1999). The New Media Literacy Handbook: An Educator´s Guide to Bridging New Media into the Classroom. Anchor Books. |
[3]
, who emphasizes the need for new literacies in digital contexts, and with the framework proposed by Trilling and Fadel
| [32] | Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. McGraw-Hill Companies. |
[32]
, which advocates for active, student-centered learning grounded in real-world challenges.
The high levels of student engagement and performance, including among those with special educational needs, underscore the inclusive potential of project-based learning (PBL) and cooperative learning methodologies. These findings are consistent with previous studies that highlight the benefits of collaborative, inquiry-driven learning environments in enhancing both academic and socio-emotional competencies
.
Moreover, the strong correlation between peer and teacher assessments reflects a well-developed capacity for self-regulation and metacognitive awareness among students, as discussed in Conley’s
| [4] | Coiro, J. (2003). Reading Comprehension on the Internet: Expanding our Understanding of Reading Comprehension to Encompass New Literacies. The Reading Teacher, N. º 56, pp. 458-64. |
[4]
work on “habits of mind.” The intervention’s alignment with Spain’s LOMLOE and Heziberri 2020 curricular frameworks demonstrates its contextual relevance and feasibility for broader adoption.
Nonetheless, the relatively lower performance in digital production skills suggests the need for deeper scaffolding in media literacy and content creation, a concern echoed by Selfe
| [21] | NEA (2012). Preparing 21st century students for a global society: An educator’s guide to the “Four Cs” National Education Association. |
[21]
, who argues for the expansion of traditional literacy frameworks to encompass multimodal communication.
In conclusion, this study affirms that combating disinformation through pedagogically grounded interventions not only cultivates critical awareness among adolescents but also enhances essential academic and life skills. Future research should explore the long-term impact of such interventions and their adaptability across different educational contexts.
We would like to express our gratitude to the school principal, Belén Rodilla, and especially to the Head of the Department, Raquel Cermeño, for implementing the proposal and for providing the necessary feedback to continue advancing our research.
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